Sample APA referenced medical report

Running Head: Treatment of paediatric pain

A behavioural family intervention for the treatment of chronic pain in children

by Mr.XYZ

We take for granted our ability to recall newly acquired information, such as recalling a telephone number, comprehending a story, or conducting a conversation. Implicit in these tasks is the ability to recall, in order, a sequence of items shortly after they are bought to our attention. However, as adults get older, their ability to retain and recall information deteriorates (Luszcz & Bryan, 1999). In the cognitive ageing literature there is a general agreement that memory functioning declines with age (Park, Lautenschlager, Hedden, Davidson & Smith, 2002;   Kausler, 1994), although not all types of memory show equal age deficits.

Age-related decrements in memory are most evident in tasks assessing retention of information over a short period of time, whereas long-term established knowledge appears to be relatively well-preserved (Zacks & Hasher, 2006). Furthermore, it appears that older adults can use long-term knowledge to partially compensate for age-related declines in memory (Park et al. 2002). In spite of the age-related differences in memory, the patterns of memory performance are similar for younger and older adults (Zacks & Hasher, 2006). Understanding the nature of the relationship of this relationship has important practical and theoretical implications for Australia’s ageing population.

“Although everyone likes to be alone at times, most people thrive on their relationships with others.”(Burton, Westen & Kowalski, 2009, p.723).

Burton, Westen and Kowalski (2009) state that,” Although everyone likes to be alone at times, most people thrive on their relationships with others.”(p. 723).

Burton, Westen and Kowalski’s (2009) study found the following:

The term indigenous people refers to the original inhabitants of a land or country, who in

most cases now share their traditional homeland with many other people. Indigenous

peoples are found right around the globe. Examples include the Inuit of the Arctic, the

Saami of Scandinavia, the Ainu of Japan, the Masai of Kenya, the Indians of the

Americas, the Aboriginals and Torres Straight Islanders of Australia, and the Maori of

New Zealand. Other countries where indigenous peoples are found include Pakistan,

Bolivia, Brazil, China, India, Malaysia, Guatemala, Peru and Mongolia.(p.788). 

According to Goodwin and Ghaemi (1997 cited  in Burton, Westen and Kowalski,2009),lithium is the choice treatment for bipolar disorder, though antiseizure medications are often effective for manic patients who are non-responsive to lithium.

Abramowitz (2006) examined the effectiveness of cognitive therapy as a treatment for obsessive compulsive disorder. 15 adults, exhibiting symptoms consistent with the DSM-IV criteria for OCD participated in the study.  Treatment consisted of one hour weekly individual sessions over a 14 week period. During the sessions psycho-educational information was provided, cognitive distortions were challenged, and strategies were provided regarding relapse prevention. In relation to the effectiveness of cognitive therapy as a treatment for OCD, Park et al.(2005) stated that:

·  Cognitive therapy significantly reduced OCD symptoms for each participant.

·  Beckian cognitive therapy not only reduced symptoms of OCD, but also reduced symptoms of depression and anxiety.

·  Cognitive therapy effectively reduced symptoms for a sub-group of OCD participants (that is, participants that had obsessions without overt compulsions).

However, Park et al.(2005) acknowledged that the study had several limitations. 1st, that the study had a small sample size. 2nd, that the participants in the study had less severe OCD and depression symptoms than participants on other trials. Park et al. (2005) argued that cognitive therapy as a treatment for OCD is potentially as effective as the behavioural treatment of exposure with response prevention (for example, earlier clinical trials have indicated that between nine-fifteen percent of clients with OCD responded to cognitive therapy). However, Abramowitz (2006) noted that the improvement in these trails was minimal.

References

Abramowitz, J. S. (2006). The psychological treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 51, 407-416.Retrieved December 04, 2010 from

http://www.jabramowitz.com/PDFs/CanJPsychiatryReview.pdf.

Kausler, D. H. (1994). Learning and memory in normal aging. San Diego: Academic Press.

 Luszcz ,M.A., Bryan ,J.(1999). Toward understanding age-related memory loss in late adulthood. Gerontology; 45, 2-9.

 Park, D. C., Lautenschlager, G., Hedden, T., Davidson, N. S.& Smith, A. D. (2002); Models of Visuospatial and Verbal Memory Across the Adult Life Span. Psychology and Aging; 17(2),299-320.

Westen, D, Burton, L & Kowalski, R (2009). Psychology: Australian and New Zealand edition,

             2nd edn, Brisbane,Australia:John Wiley & Sons.

  Zacks, R. T., & Hasher, L.(2006). Aging and long-term memory: Deficits are not inevitable. In E. Bialystok & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Lifespan cognition: Mechanisms of change (pp. 162-177). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Comparison of Factors of production between China and Japan

China and Japan have two factors of production, land and labor. Both countries produce two goods, corn, which requires more land, and computers, which requires more labor. Given that China is abundant in land and Japan is abundant in labor, what will be the effect on the terms of trade an increase in Japan's labor supply? What will be the welfare effect of a decrease in land used for corn in China?

Among the two factors of production, land and labour, China has abundance of land, but is short of skilled labour needed for computer manufacture. Japan on the other hand has abundance of skilled labour but is short of land needed for corn production. This is classic case of Ricardian theory.

It is given that both countries produce corn as well as computers. But production of corn in Japan must be costlier in Japan than in China and so also the production of computers in China. When labour force increases in Japan, the cost of production of computers comes down further. If free trade being allowed between China and Japan, people in China will opt for purchase of computers from Japan and the Japanese try to buy corn from China as a result of which gradually Japan will be shifting to specializing in production of computers and China to production of more corn. Japan will have comparative advantage in production in computers and China in production of corn. They can trade with exchanging both corn and computers which works towards gain for both countries. Since both countries geographically are also close by, the transportation costs are negligible thereby increasing the price competitiveness of the goods. The decrease in land used for corn in China will have adverse impact on the cost of corn production which can increase the price of corn.

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"Welcome to Anathoth" and Thoreau's vision into contemporary times

Thoreau opined that all these developments in Science and Technology are due to the desires of man for luxuries of life. If man opts for simple living and gets rid of his desire for luxurious life, there won’t be any need for these factories, industries, science and technological developments and the so called progress. Such a situation could also enable man to protect the environment in its original stage. Man with such simple outlook will not easily opt for wars as a result of which Governments can reduce their heavy expenditures on wars and divert the monies for the welfare of the people. If the World can thus be devoid of wars, the simplicity of life can further be enhanced (Thoreau 1985).

The practicability of living a simple life as preached by Thoreau in the modern times is almost impossible. However simple one wants to be, he cannot live without the help of minimum requirements like water, electricity and fuel. Moreover to opt for such a life is a question of attitude also. Even eminent scholars like Thoreau cannot persuade people to opt for such simple lives in the interest of grand ideals like protection of environment (Thoreau 1985).

‘Anathoth’ may be an example of a village incorporating the ideals of simple living preached by Thoreau for a very limited population but it cannot be a practical idea to build such village all over the country throwing into corner all these scientific and technological developments and the comforts they have brought to mankind with them. It may also be note that man always tries to live in the comforts of the contemporary atmosphere. Science and technology and its benefits are the norm of the present day society. Just because Thoreau was able to live a very simple life in his days it is not proper to ask the people of the present day to live such simple life as Thoreau in the middle of the alluring comforts of Science and Technology. Thoreau and other transcendentalists themselves were the proponents of the importance of the original and creative ideas. They preached that man should not be bogged down by the happenings and philosophies of the past and should formulate ideas and systems for their own times. Keeping this in mind they even said that such tings as literature should not be imitated or mimicked by people and people should have their own creative ideas. They also wanted education to tone up the intuition of man rather than make him a slave of his past. In the background of this it will be antithetical to the views of Thoreau himself if we ask people to live the life of Thoreau in the present day times. It is not only not proper to do so, but also impossible. So the people should be allowed to lead their own lives in tune with their times.

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Thoreau's advocacy for simple living

Thoreau was a great advocate of very simple living. His simplicity of living even descends to the level of labelling food as the only essential requirement in a man’s life. The other three essential elements shelter, clothing and fuel carry an element of luxury in them. According to him as one simplifies one’s life, the laws of the universe will be simpler and poverty will not be poverty.

Thoreau bought several acres of land at a very cheap rate from a poor family. He built his own home without any permit and did not provide it with any electricity. He teaches others also to lead a simple life that he lead near Walden pond, but there are certain realities in the modern society that would make his proposition more complicated. Modern man is attuned to living with certain comforts which are now considered essential for a hassle-free living. A secure home with certain facilities- a car, a refrigerator, a television and such other equipment are not luxuries but the essential requirements of modern life. There is a change not only in the outlook of the man but also in the adaptability of his body to the surroundings. Man has reached a stage where he cannot live without these facilities. So Thoreau’s advice to lead a very simple life devoid of all the modern amenities looks far from practical (Thoreau 1985).

No doubt there are people in the dark areas of African continent who lead very simple lives far away from the comforts of modern science and technology. But it must be noted that such a life is not of their choice and option but it was one of struggle for survival like that of any animal. Even those people if introduced to the taste of the modern comforts and then asked to go back to their earlier primitive lives, they will not be willing to oblige (Thoreau 1985).

The main difference between society of Thoreau’s times and modern society is the multiplication of income through multiplicity of methods. Thoreau earned his income through farming and selling crops. In such circumstances, one can lead a very simple life. But in the present day circumstances when the population has multiplied a number of times, it is not practical to expect people to live on agriculture only and lead very simple lives. People had to opt for diverse occupations to earn their livelihoods. In the process, they had to come across different facets of cultures and lifestyles which prompted them to adapt themselves to the requirements of those cultures and lifestyles. Apart from this, there is lot of diversity in the climates of various countries which require people to adapt different equipments to live in synchronization with vagaries of nature. So unless permitted by nature, it is not possible for man to live the simple life preached by Thoreau all over the World(Thoreau 1985).

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Thoreau's position on charity and caring for poor as in 'Walden'

Thoreau has some peculiar impressions on charity, caring for the poor and philanthropy. He feels that philanthropy is the only virtue more than any other virtue which is sufficiently appreciated by mankind. He goes to the extent of saying that it is overrated due to our selfishness. He quotes the example of a robust poor man in his town concord who praised a fellow townsman because that man was kind to him (the poor man). By this Thoreau meant that the selfishness of the poor man made him praise the townsman for his kindness. He expresses surprise that kind people are treated with more regard than the spiritual people, who have done more for the mankind. For this he quotes the example of a lecturer on England who spoke about the great people of England like Shakespeare, Francis Bacon, Oliver Cromwell, John Milton and Isaac Newton. But she also spoke of her Christian heroes like William Penn, Howard and Mrs. Elizabeth Fry and placed them on higher place regarding their greatness than the former ones. Thoreau says that such a comparison is wrong because the latter are best philanthropists and not great in the same vein as the former ones(Thoreau 1985).

While insisting that he would not like to detract in anyway the appreciation for philanthropy, Thoreau says that justice should be done to all those, whose lives and works are a blessing to humanity. Thoreau compares uprightness and philanthropy of people to leaves and stem of plants. He says that it is not the stem and leaves of a plant that mankind want but its flowers and fruits. Thoreau says that philanthropy is bud from one angle in the sense that it is being doled by the philanthropist out of sympathy for the recipients of his philanthropic donation. The entire process gives an impression that the recipients are grief-stricken for want of something which the philanthropist doles out(Thoreau 1985).

On closer analysis, Thoreau’s impression about philanthropy and charity are absolutely right. Philanthropists all over the world receive immediate recognition and appreciation, whereas the great inventors, scientists and discoverers, whose works facilitated the wonderful evolution of mankind, appear to pale into insignificance compared to these people. One reason maybe that people feel that philanthropist is earning something by hard work and then by act of philanthropy is depriving himself of his hard-earned possessions, whereas a scientist or an explorer is considered to have achieved something to prove his greatness. The utility of his invention, discovery or exploration to the society does not mean anything to majority of the people, while an act of philanthropy attracts the attention of even the lowest placed man in the society. It is this difference in recognition that should be set right according to Thoreau (Thoreau 1985).

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Thoreau's views on Economy in 'Walden'

Thoreau advises simplification of all needs of life to have a better economy. He points out that modern man has converted all luxuries of life into necessities. According to him, food is the mot essential requirement of humans’ and other necessities like shelter, clothing and fuel have an element of luxury about them. His purpose of going to Walden Pond was to show that life can be led the best way when done in simplest manner (Thoreau 1985).

According to Thoreau, economy refers to a very careful spending of money for the natural activities. For the society, both during Thoreau’s time and later also till date, economy means exchange of money by consumerism. Thoreau says that people bog them selves down with too many details and materialistic aspirations. Success in one’s life is measured by acquisitions and disposable incomes. According to him, the best way to lead life is not by such economic considerations but by abandoning such clutches of material possessions in life (Thoreau 1985).

The approach of Thoreau to economy is totally different from those of others. He wonders why people own so many clothes when they wear only few of them repeatedly. He also wonders why people eat thrice a day when one meal per day is sufficient. He also wonders at everybody enquiring as to what the news is, showing the inquisitiveness in the lives of others while they can use that time for enriching their lives (Thoreau 1985).

Thoreau criticizes colleges for not preparing youth for real life. He criticizes the yearning for material possession for creating luxuries saying that these many production facilities are not required if people opt for a simple life(Thoreau 1985).

Thoreau’s philosophy preaching simplicity in life, no doubt is appealing and also practical as shown by eminent people, who despite all their achievements led simple lives. But this opting  for a simple way of life does not appeal to majority of the common people who are tempted by the pleasure of possessing things in abundance even if they don’t use them. So his views appear impracticable, not because they are really utopian, but because people normally don’t like to opt for such life(Thoreau 1985).

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Thoreau's views on Society in 'Walden'

Thoreau advises that men should lead a simple life and be self-reliant. Conforming to rules and norms, in his view, is equivalent to losing autonomy. He believed that people around him lacked in individualism and to avoid them he went for a secluded life in woods and produced a masterpiece of collection of essays, “Walden”(Thoreau 1985).

Thoreau is of the view that, men are busy doing jobs like a machine thereby, losing humanity. This mechanical life, according to him is mediocre(Thoreau 1985).

Thoreau views 'inheritance of property' as a means to loss of individuality and freedom. He says that these inheritances are easy to acquire but difficult to get rid of (Thoreau 1985).

Thoreau criticizes public opinion because it deprives the people of their choice of how to be viewed. He labels public opinion as a weak tyrant. He is of the view that men should direct their lives in the way they feel about them rather than how public expects them to live and behave (Thoreau 1985).

Thoreau was also critical of the advice from the elderly. He says that their experience in life may be enriching, but inapplicable to the lives of the young. Life is unique to everyone and everyone should live it his own way. Heeding to other’s advices, in his view is loss of individuality (Thoreau 1985).

Thoreau does not spare even the younger generation. He says that while the younger generation tries to float and follows new ideas, different from those of the old, they again commit the same mistake of imposing their advices on others. Such attitude, he feels, should be changed. There is no time limit for such a change. One can change at any stage of his life(Thoreau 1985).

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Emerson's views on American Education and Transcendentalism

Views on Education        

Emerson was very clear in his views on education. He says that the pupil should be allowed to choose what he wants to study and the choice should not be imposed on him. According to him, the important points in training are genius and drill. Genius refers to leaving the pupil to develop own perception and inspiration while drill refers to giving practice to the student so that he can gain accuracy and precision(Cheever 2006).

Emerson wanted education to teach the practical and the moral. It should make people brave and free. It should teach the boys to become what they want to be. Education should train them as if there is belief in their noble qualities. It should educate their bodies. Its aim should not be to equip them with some skill in numbers and words so as to make them attorneys, engineers and accountants. It should mould them into capable, sincere and empathetic people. The aim of education should be in sync with the objective in life. The education should stress on morality, self trust, inspiration to invoke self- interest and increasing his acquaintance with his mental resources. Only such education is in consonance with divine provision (Cheever 2006).

American Education

American Education or for that matter, education in most parts of the world did not develop and perform the way visionaries like Emerson expected it to do. The educational institutions are bent on promoting literacy among people rather than educating them. That is the reason as to why we witness very few creative thinkers emerging from modern educational institutions(Cheever 2006).

Transcendentalism

Transcendentalism was a new movement in literature and philosophy in the 1830s and 1840, which rose in protest against state of culture and society at that time. Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau were two of the important transcendentalists. The transcendentalists believed in the ideal state of mind. Such state of mind is realized only through one’s intuition and not through the regimented doctrines of established religions (Cheever 2006).

                                                                             

Emerson’s views on various matters focus on creativity and originality which are the outputs of ideal state of mind. His revolutionary ideas on education, literature and reading transcend the physical aspects of these concepts (Cheever 2006).

Reference:

Cheever, S. 2006. American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work, Thorndike Press, Detroit.

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Emerson's views in the "American Scholar" on literature

According to Emerson, books are full of learning of the past. These books change mere facts into virtual truths and thus pose a great danger. He feels that every book is only a partial truth since it was written based on the happenings during the times it was written. It cannot be applied to other times since each age has its own books and can establish its own truth. Another danger from books is that they wean the scholar away from original thinking. Scholars get overawed by the brilliance of the past writers and discouraged from exploring new ideas and seeking individualized truths (Cheever 2006).

Emerson says that a bookworm of a scholar is the worst of all the scholars because he focusses on trivial matters of scholarship and relegates larger ideas to the background. Such people are antithetical to the expectation of Emerson. He feels that the streak of creativity in man is the representative of divinity. If man stops being creative, it means that he is distancing himself from God and therefore from nature(Cheever 2006).

Literature has its adverse influence on genius too according to Emerson. He cites the idolization of Shakespeare by English dramatists who tried to copy Shakespeare for nearly two hundred years, burying their own imaginative creations. Emerson feels that true scholars should resort to literature only when he is devoid of his own creative thinking (Cheever 2006).

Emerson has some appreciation too for literature. Whether during ancient times or later, reading had the capacity of completely defeating time in the sense that one forgets the passage of time while reading. Reading had made its contribution to the nourishing of thinking of some original thinkers also. But reading should be critical in such a way that it nourishes and complements the original and creative thinking (Cheever 2006).

Reference:

Cheever, S. 2006. American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work, Thorndike Press, Detroit.

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